Indian Knowledge system
(Home assignment)
A historical sketch of indian poetics
Indian poetics refers to the study of the principles of literary aesthetics in Indian literature,
especially in Sanskrit and classical Indian languages. Its development spans several
centuries and has influenced not just literature, but also drama, performance, and
philosophy.
1.Vedic and Pre-Classical Period (1500 BCE – 200 BCE):
Roots in the Vedas: Indian poetics finds its earliest expressions in the Rigveda, where poetic composition was associated with divine inspiration and ritual function
Natyashastra by Bharatamuni (2nd century BCE):
Often considered the foundational text of Indian poetics and dramaturgy.
Introduced the concept of Rasa (aesthetic flavor/emotion), which became central to all later
theories.
Discussed elements of drama, dance, music, and performance
2. Classical Period (200 BCE – 1200 CE):
This is the golden age of Indian poetics, marked by the rise of various schools of literary
theory.
Rasa School – Bharata (expanded later by Abhinavagupta):
Rasa refers to the aesthetic emotion experienced by the audience (e.g., love, heroism,
sorrow).
Abhinavagupta’s commentary (Abhinavabharati) further developed rasa theory, linking it to
the experience of universal consciousness.
Alankara School – Bhamaha, Dandin:
Focused on figures of speech (alankaras) and the embellishment of poetry.
Emphasized stylistic beauty over emotional depth.
Dhvani School – Anandavardhana:
Introduced the concept of Dhvani (suggestion), arguing that suggestion, not literal meaning,
is the soul of poetry.
His work Dhvanyaloka (9th century) became a milestone in Indian literary theory.
Vakrokti School – Kuntaka:
Proposed Vakrokti (oblique expression) as the essence of poetry.
Emphasized creative use of language and stylistic deviation.
Auchitya School – Kshemendra:
Highlighted the importance of propriety or suitability in poetic expression (auchitya).
Rīti or Guna-Dosa School – Vamana, Namyaka:
Discussed poetic style (rīti) and qualities (gunas) that define great poetry.
3. Medieval Period (1200 – 1800 CE) :
Poetic theories expanded into regional languages like Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali, and
Persian-Urdu literary cultures.
Bhakti movement influenced poetry by focusing on devotion and emotional expressiveness.
Poetics became increasingly didactic and devotional, moving slightly away from classical
aesthetics
4. Modern Period (1800 CE – Present):
Colonial impact introduced Western literary criticism and comparative aesthetics.
Modern Indian writers like Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, and others blended classical
Indian poetics with Western theories.
Contemporary scholarship has revived interest in classical poetics, with scholars like S.K.
De, Krishna Raghavan, and Sheldon Pollock contributing to the global understanding of
Indian aesthetics.
Key Concepts in Indian Poetics
Rasa – Emotional essence or mood
Dhvani – Suggestion or implied meaning
Alankara – Figures of speech
Vakrokti – Stylistic deviation or twist in expression
Auchitya – Appropriateness or propriety
Rīti – Style or mode of expression
(Eassy)
Kuntak's Vakrokti Theory
About the Chapter:
This module is about famous Sanskrit rhetorician, literary theorist Kuntaka and his theory of
poetry. He belongs to Vakrokti school of Sanskrit or ancient Indian poetics. This module briefly
talks about Kuntaka, his contemporary theorists, his role in poetics and linguistics. This module
also discusses about famous book, Vakrokti-Jivitam by Kuntaka. In conclusion, this module talks
about Kuntaka’s position in Indian literary theory.
Introduction:
Kuntaka is the originator of the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit literary theory. He came after
Anandvardhan of the 9th century and before Abhinavagupta of the 10th century. His time was
the time of high merit of Indian poetics. Dhananjaya and Rajashekhara were his contemporary
theorists. The theorists who appeared in the time of Kuntaka contributed a lot to what is in
different shape is considered as modern theories of literature and language. In this context,
Ganesh Devy says that Vakrorkti and the Alamkara are two Indian schools which are very close
to two Western schools of thought, formalism and new criticism.
Ganesh Devy commented, “Vakrokti is a theory of poetry which perceives poetry essentially
as terms of the language of its expression. It sees the poetic language as a language of metaphor
and suggestive communication”. Hence, Kuntaka’s contribution in poetic thought is not only the
matter of poetry or literature but it is about understanding the language, language of poetry and
its difference with the language of the common. Kuntaka’s opinions on language of poetry and
overall his study on language makes his position many steps further to the future. He is
considered as one of the early language theorists in India.
Kuntaka and Vakrokti-Jivitam:
Anjalika Mukhopadhyay informs in her Bangla translation of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam that,
the manuscript of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam was appeared as final version with the initiative
and immense work done by Sushil Kumar Dey in 1922. This manuscript was found as
incomplete in four chapters. Some scholars assume this book has its fifth chapter also but it is not
proved yet. Scholars assume that Kuntak was a Kashmiri, because some hints were found in this
regard. It is also assumed that Kunataka was alive in the time between Anandavardhana and
Abhinavagupta. He appeared before Mahimbhatta, as Mahimbhatta mentioned about him in
different Slokas. If Mahimbhatta came in between 1020-1060 then Kuntaka was there in between
1000-1030. Kuntaka never mentioned Abhinavagupta and Abhinavagupta also never mentioned
Kuntaka; though he talked about Vakrokti. It means either they were contemporary to each other
or Kuntaka came after Abhinavagupta. Mahimbhatta, Hemachandra and Bhoja told that Kuntaka
was the author of the Karika and Britti of his Vakrokti-Jivitam, though some scholars have doubt
on this because the style of language found in the Karika and the Britti is completely different.
History of Vakrokti :
The theory of Vakrokti is found even before Kuntaka had made it sophisticated and scientific
with his rare talent. Bhamaha among the theorists who talked about Vakrokti is most ancient.
Kuntaka primarily adopted Bhamaha’s idea of Vakrokti. Rudrat in his Kavyalankara (9th
century) also talked about Vakrokti. Vakrokti was generally perceived as a Shabdalankar only.
But it did not have much significance beyond its significance as Shabdlankar in Bhamaha,
Dandin and Bamana understands.
As an alamkara Vakrokti was very inclusive to Bhamaha. He included all types of alamkara
under the term of Vakrokti. According to Bhamaha Vakrokti is the soul of poetry. The way words
become different from daily conversation and gives pleasure to the mind of the rasika or one who
accomplishes poetry is vakrokti. Bhamaha did not accept Swabhabokti as a type of alamkara. But
Dandin accepted both Swabhavokti and vakrokti as alamkara. He believed poetry means
alamkara. If the daily use of language is reformulated with alamkara it becomes vakrokti and that
vakrokti is led by Slesha. And this is how vakrokti creates beauty in poetry.
Sreenivas Rao in his work on Kuntaka and Indian poetics says that “later, Rudrata treats
Vakrokti as a mere play of words or pretended speech”, which means that the word is meant for
one thing and it is understood by the readers as another thing. It happens because of the voice
and modulation of the reader of that particular poem. This difference in voice is known as Kaku,
which according to Rao is ‘peculiar intonation’ (Rao, Sreenivas;). And this changes the meaning
of the word. It also happens for the word having multiple meanings or at least two meanings and
each meaning has its logical implications which is known as Slesha. Rao added that Vamana
observes Vakrokti as an Artha-Alamkara where the hinted meaning of the word or lakshana is
replaced by the similarity or Sadrishya and therefore, to Vamana Vakrokti is nothing but a
metaphor. Hence the Vakrokti as an extended poetic term proposed by Bhamaha and Dandin
appeared as a limited term and a figure of speech only to Rudrata and Vamana. It is Kuntaka who
did the historical study of the theory of Vakrokti and placed it in a very significant theory of
poetry. He made differences between the language of poetry and the language of everyday life
with the reference of Vakrokti. According to him Vakrokti is a distinguishing factor of poetry and
it is one of the basic qualities of poetic language, it makes the composition of words a poem. He
is the true successor of Bhamaha and established Vakrokti as distinctive characteristics of all
alamkaras. His concept of Vakrokti also guides the poet to select the words while composing a
piece of poem. This idea is peculiar to poetry.
What is Vakrokti ?
Kuntaka explains the definition of the term Vakrokti and its genealogical meaning. He mentions
that, “the term Vakrokti is composed of Vakra + Ukti, where the latter (Ukti) derived from
Vac-paribhashane can easily be taken to mean a poetic expression, a clever speech or a pithy
statement. It is however the former component (Vakra) of the term Vakrokti, evoking diverse
shades of meanings and suggestions, that is widely discussed and interpreted in various manners”
(Rao, Sreenivas;) .
Kuntaka, like many other theorists, also accepted the traditional definition of poetry. And this
definition says that the great juxtaposition and interwovenness of the sabda and artha makes a
piece poetry. But Kuntaka claimed that this interwoven relation of sabda and artha should have a
quality of Vakrata or Vaichitra. According to him the vakrota or vakrotva is the very quality of
poetry and it brings pleasure in the mind of the reader after or while one is reading the poem.
Vakrota is the very essence of the poetic speech or what is known as Kavyokti and it makes the
life of a poetry what is known as Jivita. And that is why the title of his book is Vakrokti-Jivita, it
is a biography of poetry, the title shows it talks about everything of a poetry. It speaks about the
being and becoming and after life of a poem.
According to him Vakrokti is a matter of Vaidagdhya or intelligence, but not only that, it
depends of the style or how the intelligence will create this matter, therefore he says that the
Vakrokti is Vaidagdhya-bhangi-bhanita (Rao, Sreenivas;). Therefore, the successful creation of
Vakrokti in poetry depends on the talent and skill or craftsmanship of a poet, what is known as
Kavi-Koushala (poetic art). This is how Kuntaka relates the talent, skill or craftsmanship of the
poet to create a successful poem which will be very unique in creating meaning and expression.
Kuntaka’s Vakrokti:
According to Kuntaka Vakrokti is created by “Baidagdhabhangibhanitiruchyate”, which means
a poetic talent with his own creative power creates such attractive subject which being earthly,
sounds heavenly to the rasika or to the readers who has authority to accomplish. Swabhabvokti
defines or represents things or objects as it is there in the world of reality. Kuntaka argues there is
no credit of creating Swabhabokti because it does not bring any uniqueness in the poetic thought
and alamkara also cannot perform its role here in the Swabhabokti. Alamkara makes the object
beautiful by putting the elements which are not there in the object.
Shabda and the Artha make the body of poetry. It can be beautiful with the vakrokti. The
cleverness of words should not cover the beauty of the poem. Tadwidgana, means the group of
scholars who understand poetry will evaluate this highest art of creation of poetry in a poet.
Kuntaka defines poetry by saying that it is “word and sense together enshrined in a style
revealing the artistic creativity of the poet on the one hand and giving delight to the man of taste
on the other” (Devy, Ganesh;). This definition of poetry shows that Kuntaka carried the lineage
of knowledge on Indian poetics. The previous thoughts propagated by different schools are
adapted in Kuntaka’s theory on poetry.
He mentions that the meaning is signified and word signifies the meaning. He elaborated his idea
on word, meaning, style, metaphor and poetic language. And later he describes the good qualities
of true poetry. A good poetry is something which has a unique expression, meaning which
delights the readers. A poet can make a mere word unique with his creative talent. Words and
meanings are adorned in poetry and they appear as an ‘artistic turn of speech’.
There are different types of Vakrokti suggested by Kuntaka in his Vakrokti-Jivitam Those are,
Phonetic figurativeness (Varnavinyasa Vakrata), Lexical figurativeness (padapurvardha Vakrata),
Grammatical figurativeness (pratyaya vakrata), Sentential Figurativeness (Vakyavakrata),
Contextual figurativeness (Prakarana vakrata), and Compositional figurativeness (Prabandha
vakrata).
Kuntaka’s Idea of Sahitya :
Kuntaka explains the idea of Sahitya in his Vakrokti-Jivitam. He said,
"Sahityamanayo Shobhashalitang Prati kapyasou
Anyunyatiriktatwamanoharinyabasthiti "
Kuntaka’s above statement means that the mode of union is literature. When the word and the
meaning exists together and united with each other but do not lose their own identity,
characteristics but their union is so heavenly, so spiritual that do not cross the limits of each
other’s boundary then they together create the beauty and that beauty is Sahitya (literature). As
word and meaning meet with each other in a heavenly mode, there is no need for additional
claims of Alamkara or ornament in literature. Hence, Kuntaka did not feel there was any need for
Alamkara as a necessary component of literature.
Marga or Riti or Style and Guna:
According to Kuntaka, 'Sukumara Marga’ is an essential condition of Kavya. Beside
Sukumara Marga, he talks about Bichitra Marga and he explains the characteristics in ten
Karikas. There are another Marga which is created by the characteristics of both the above said
Margas, and that is Ubhayatmak Marga.
Kuntaka talks about four kinds of Guna. Those are Madhurya, Prasada, Lavanya and
Abhijatya. For example he took references from Kalidasa. Later he mentioned two more Guna,
Auchitya and Soubhagya and these Gunas are common to all the above three margas.
Conclusion :
Kuntaka after Bhatrihari, is the most brilliant and rare talent who contributed enormously on
the discourse of language study and also on the discourse of poetic language or literary language.
In his understanding vakrokti is the vaidagdhyam bhangi or it is deviated or alternative to the
speech act of the common people. With his study of poetic language he suggested the how of the
birth of beauty. He is that genius in Indian poetics who extends himself from language study to
aesthetics to adaptation theory, to translation theory what we deal with now can be rooted in
Kuntaka’s work also. The different types of Vakrokti that he classified are methods of criticism
of literature also. It is actually literary discourse proposed by him. He suggested a complete
structure of literary study. But not only limited into that he was concerned about the reader’s
response, though it is the major concern of all the Sanskrit rhetoricians. Vakrokti is
Kavi-Kushalata, art and talent of the poet and poet’s creativity is termed as
“Kavi-vyapara-vakrata, or art in the poetic process and this is the primary condition of a
successful poetry” and therefore rasanubhuti comes into the mind of Sahridaya or the readers
(Rao, Sreenivas;). Kuntaka has balanced between the poet’s role and reader’s role in appreciation
of poetry. The point of view of the poet and the reader’s accomplishment both are necessary for
the emergence of rasanubhuti, according to Kuntaka.
Summary:
In this module we have learnt about Kuntaka and his contribution to Indian poetics. We have
discussed a historical study on the term of Vakrokti and how Kuntak has successfully theorised
the term and made it a primary condition of a successful poem. Kuntak’s theory is not only a
theory of cherishing poetry but he contributed his thoughts to guide the future poets with his
understanding of how to write a poem. We have discussed the differences of thoughts on the term
Vakrokti with the reference of Kuntaka and his predecessors. We have also discussed about
Kuntaka’s concept of different styles or riti of poetry and his conception about Sahitya in this
module.
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